Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with [[Construction]]. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, [[Planning]], [[Design]], and constructing [[Buildings]] or other [[Structures]]. The term comes from Latin _architectura_; from Ancient Greek _ἀρχιτέκτων_ (arkhitéktōn), meaning 'chief creator'. Architectural works are often perceived as cultural symbols and as [[Art|works of art]]. Historical [[Civilizations]] are commonly identified through their surviving architectural achievements. The practice began in the [[Prehistoric Era]] as an expression of [[Culture]] by civilizations on all continents. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text is the 1st-century BC treatise [[De architectura]] by Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], who emphasized _firmitas_, _utilitas_, and _venustas_ (durability, utility, and beauty). [[Leon Battista Alberti]] later saw beauty as an objective quality found in proportions. Nineteenth-century architect [[Louis Sullivan]] declared that "form follows function," a concept replacing classical utility and expanding to include aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of [[Sustainable Architecture]] was introduced in the late 20th century. ## [[Definitions]] Architecture can mean: - A general term for buildings and other physical structures. - The art and science of designing buildings and some nonbuilding structures ("architectonics"). - The style and method of construction of buildings and other structures. - A coherent or unifying form or structure. - The knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity. - The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level ([[Urban Design]], [[Landscape Architecture]]) to the micro-level (details and furniture). - The professional practice of designing and constructing buildings or environments. ## [[Theory]] See: [[Architectural Theory]] and [[Philosophy of Architecture]] ## Philosophy of Architecture The philosophy of architecture is a branch of the [[Philosophy of Art]], focused on architectural aesthetics, semantics, and cultural development. Philosophers from [[Plato]] to [[Michel Foucault]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Robert Venturi]], and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] have examined architecture's nature and its distinction from mere building. ## Historic Treatises - **Vitruvius's De architectura**: Advocates _firmitas_, _utilitas_, and _venustas_—translated as durability, utility, and beauty. The architect should strive for all three. - **Leon Battista Alberti's De re aedificatoria**: Beauty lies in proportion, based on universal, recognizable truths. - **Sebastiano Serlio's Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva**: Catalogued the five architectural orders; practical over theoretical. - **Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin's Contrasts**: Gothic architecture as the true Christian form; contrasted modern and neo-medieval worlds. - **John Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture**: Architecture is art that disposes and adorns edifices such that they contribute to mental health, power, and pleasure; aesthetics are paramount. "Architecture" is distinguished from "construction": Le Corbusier said, "You employ stone, wood, and concrete... But suddenly you touch my heart... That is Architecture." Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: “Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together.” ## Modern Concepts - **Form follows function**: Louis Sullivan promoted structural and aesthetic considerations subject to functionality. - **Aesthetics**: Remain contested, with critics noting a disconnect between professionals and the public. Preference generally leans to traditional and classical styles. - **Philosophies** influencing modern architecture: Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction, Phenomenology. - **Sustainability**: Includes environmentally friendly building production, material choice, and demands on the environment (e.g., for HVAC, water, waste, lighting). ## [[History]] Main: [[History of Architecture]] ## [[Origins and Vernacular Architecture]] Early settlements were mostly rural, with architecture evolving from needs (shelter, security, worship) and means (materials, skills). As cultures developed, building became a [[Craft]], and architecture a formalized aspect. Architectural success came through trial and error, and [[Vernacular Architecture]] continues worldwide. ## [[Prehistoric Architecture]] Significant sites: - [[Göbekli Tepe]] (Turkey) - [[Goseck circle]] (Germany) - [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]] houses - [[Skara Brae]] dwellings (Orkney) Neolithic sites: [[Jericho]], [[Mehrgarh]], [[Çatalhöyük]] ## [[Classical Era]] Highlighted works: - [[Ishtar Gate]] (Mesopotamia) - [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (Egypt) - [[Parthenon]] (Ancient Greece) - [[Maison Carrée]] (Ancient Rome) - [[Garni Temple]] (Armenia) Architecture and urbanism reflected religious and political power. [[Classical Civilization|Greek and Roman civilizations]], evolving from civic ideals, developed the [[Classical Orders]]. Early canons (e.g., Vitruvius's writings) often had religious applications. ## [[Asian Architecture]] Notable examples: - [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] (India) - [[Temple of Heaven]] (China) - [[Himeji Castle]] (Japan) - [[Bakong]] (Cambodia) Distinct Buddhist, Hindu, and Sikh styles; Indian and Chinese architectures influenced surrounding regions, while Japanese did not. [[Buddhist Architecture]] shows regional diversity. [[Hindu Temple Architecture]] is governed by the [[Shastras]] and expresses macrocosm/microcosm. Asian pantheistic religions led to architecture designed to enhance [[Natural Landscapes]], with many historic houses constructed of wood. Buddhism saw a shift to stone and brick structures ([[Rock-cut Architecture]]). Early Asian writings: [[Kao Gong Ji]] (China), [[Shilpa Shastras]] (India), [[Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra]] (Sri Lanka), [[Araniko]] (Nepal). ## [[Islamic Architecture]] - [[Moorish Architecture]]: Grand arches, Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba - [[Persian Architecture]]: Jameh Mosque, Isfahan - [[Mughal Architecture]]: Taj Mahal, Agra - [[Ottoman Architecture]]: Dome of Selimiye Mosque, Edirne Developed from 7th-century Middle Eastern and Byzantine forms to suit religious and social needs, expanding to regions affected by the Ottoman Empire. ## [[European Medieval Architecture]] - [[Etchmiadzin Cathedral]] (Armenia) - [[Santa Maria Maggiore]] (Rome, mosaic apse) - [[Aachen Cathedral]] (Carolingian) - [[Durham Cathedral]] (Romanesque) - [[Sainte-Chapelle]] (Gothic stained glass, Paris) Guilds organized trades—architects often doubled as master masons ([[Magister lathomorum]]). Major constructions included cathedrals and abbeys; clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge, resulting in [[Romanesque]] and [[Gothic]] styles. [[Fortifications]], from the Balkans to Spain and Malta to Estonia, are significant heritage. ## [[Renaissance Architecture]] Important works: - [[Florence Cathedral]] (Italy; Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi, Emilio De Fabris) - [[Tempietto]] (Rome; Donato Bramante) - [[Villa Farnesina]] perspective hall (Rome; Baldassare Peruzzi) - [[Villa La Rotonda]] (Vicenza; Andrea Palladio) - [[Château de Chenonceau]] (France; Philibert de l'Orme) Renaissance favored Classical learning and humanism. Architects gained individual recognition, but boundaries between architect, artist, and engineer were blurred. Science and engineering affected building proportions and structure. ## [[Early Modern & Industrial Age]] Important styles and buildings: - [[Baroque Architecture]]: Château de Maisons (France; François Mansart) - [[Rococo Architecture]]: Palace of Versailles, pièce de la vaisselle d'or (France) - [[Neoclassical Architecture]]: Petit Trianon (Versailles; Ange-Jacques Gabriel) - [[Gothic Revival]]: All Saints, London (William Butterfield) - [[Classicist Eclecticism]]: Museum of Ages (Bucharest) - [[Industrial Architecture]]: Zollern II/IV Colliery (Dortmund; Paul Knobbe) - [[Orientalist Architecture]]: Éden-Théâtre (Paris) - [[Romanian Revival]]: C.N. Câmpeanu House (Bucharest; Constantin Nănescu) - [[Beaux-Arts Architecture]]: CEC Palace (Bucharest; Paul Gottereau) - [[Art Nouveau]]: Ernst Ludwig House (Darmstadt; Joseph Maria Olbrich) With advances in science and materials, architects concentrated on aesthetics and the humanist aspect, often at the expense of technical design. Rise of the "gentleman architect" (visual qualities, wealthier clients). [[École des Beaux-Arts]] emphasized beautiful drawings over feasibility. The [[Industrial Revolution]] led to mass production, and ornamented products became more affordable. ## [[Modernism]] Key examples: - [[Fagus Factory]] (Germany; Walter Gropius) - [[Einstein Tower]] (Berlin; Erich Mendelsohn) - [[Théâtre des Champs-Élysées]] (Paris; Auguste Perret) - [[Derzhprom]] (Kharkiv; Sergei Serafimov et al.) Modern architecture began after [[World War I]] as an avant-garde movement that developed new styles appropriate for post-war needs. Emphasis was placed on modern materials, geometric forms, and high-rise structures. Disillusionment with modernism led to [[Postmodern Architecture]] and [[Contemporary Architecture]]. Today, architectural construction covers everything from ship design to interior decoration. ## [[Types]] - [[Religious Architecture]] - [[Residential Architecture]] - [[Commercial Architecture]] - [[Industrial Architecture]] - [[Civic Architecture]] - [[Military Architecture]] - [[Educational Architecture]] - [[Healthcare Architecture]] - [[Landscape Architecture]] - [[Urban Design]] - [[Sustainable Architecture]] - [[Vernacular Architecture]] ## [[Key Concepts and Elements]] ## [[Architectural Elements]] - [[Form (Architecture)]] - [[Function (Architecture)]] - [[Space (Architecture)]] - [[Structure (Architecture)]] - [[Materials (Architecture)]] - [[Light (Architecture)]] - [[Proportion]] - [[Scale (Architecture)]] ## [[Design Principles]] - [[Firmness, Commodity and Delight]] - [[Form Follows Function]] - [[Architectural Design Values]] - [[Sustainability in Architecture]] ## [[Historical Movements]] - [[Classical Architecture]] - [[Gothic Architecture]] - [[Renaissance Architecture]] - [[Baroque Architecture]] - [[Neoclassical Architecture]] - [[Modern Architecture]] - [[Postmodern Architecture]] - [[Contemporary Architecture]] ## [[See Also]] - [[Architectural Theory]] - [[Philosophy of Architecture]] - [[History of Architecture]] - [[List of Architectural Styles]] - [[List of Architects]] - [[Architect]] --- 1. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture)